Peak flow measurement Essays

Peak flow measurement Essays Peak flow measurement Essay Peak flow measurement Essay There are many measurements available to monitor changes in breathing capacity. One of the simplest measurements used by doctors and patients would be the peak flow meter. A peak flow meter is a portable instrument that detects minute decreases in air flow, used by people with asthma to monitor small changes in breathing capacity1. The peak flow meter has two parts, a mouth piece and a meter measured in litres per minute (L/min). This type of measurement is used for diagnosis and self-management; it is very cheap and easy to manage by the patient. But unfortunately it is not very accurate as the meter only measures in every 10 L/min. There will be a greater inaccuracy to smokers since they have greater damage in there bronchioles. A peak flow meter will help the patient to tell what is going on in his airways rather than guessing the way a patient feels, also it will help whether the patient needs to change his treatment. Asthma is a medical condition which makes breathing difficult by causing by causing the air passages to become narrow or blocked2. The tightness of the air ways can cause one or more of the following symptoms: * Wheezing * Coughing * Shortness of breath * Chest tightness The narrowing of air passages is caused by airway inflammation (airways in lungs become red, swollen and narrow). Unfortunately the cause of asthma is not known, but there are factors which play a part in asthma. These include: * Genetic factors- Inheritance; * Environmental factors- Inhaling house dust mites, exposure to tobacco smoke, sensitive to animals, pollens, moulds and dusts; * Dietary changes- Higher salt intake, a lack of fresh oily fish etc. * Lack of exercise. There are few medicines used by asthmatic patients which help them when they are in extreme conditions and also when their vital capacity lower than before. The two main ones are bronchodilator is and inhaler which is blue in colour and is used for reversibility test. A bronchodilator widens the air passages of the lungs and eases breathing by relaxing bronchial smooth muscle3. The second medicine is prednisolone which is a synthetic steroid and is used in various compounds as an anti-inflammatory4. These two medicines are used respectively when the peak flow of a patient is lower than before. Therefore the reversibility testis used first. If this medicine does not breathing capacity to better, the patient will then need to use the steroid challenge medicine. Method When taking a peak flow reading I should: 1. Check the pointer is at zero and stand in a comfortable, upright position. 2. Hold the peak flow meter level and keep fingers away from the pointer. 3. Firstly take deep breath and then close lips firmly around the mouth piece. After that blow very hard onto the mouth piece. 4. Look at the point and record the reading. 5. Reset the pointer back to zero. Repeat this method three times and record the highest readings. Results My three peak flow results are 500 L/min, 520 L/min and 500 L/min. I have produced a histogram to show the distribution of the PEF of the whole class for males and females: PEF (L/min) frequency 300?Y350 1 350?Y400 4 400?Y450 5 450?Y500 2 PEF (L/min) frequency 450?X500 1 500?X550 3 550?X600 3 600?X650 3 650?X700 4 Average mean for males: 14/5 = 2.8 Average mean for females: 12/4 = 3 Percentage predicted for my results: 520/585 *100 = 88.9% Discussion My experimental procedure produced clear results although recording readings wasnt very accurate due to the inaccuracy of the meter. My own PEF results showed that it was lower than my predicted result, this is because I have asthma! But from my calculations measurements, I cannot prove that I have asthmas my percentage predicted result is greater than 85%. Therefore other measurements need to be used to help the detection of asthma. Comparing the histogram graphs for females and males it is clear that the males lowest peak flow value is greater than the females lowest peak flow value. Also the male distribution is negatively skewed and the female distribution is approximately symmetrical. This indicates in the male distribution that the PEF of most students lie to the right side of the histogram. This means that majority of males in the class are healthy, fit, have large lungs and do not have asthma. The female graph shows that the majority of students are in the range of 350?Y;450 L/min, this indicates that the female lungs are smaller than males lungs and therefore females vital capacity is lower. The average value for males is 2.8 which indicates that the average PEF value lies between 500?X;550, while the females average value is 3 therefore indicating that the average PEF value lies between 350?Y;400. This clearly shows that the average PEF value for males is greater than females. This is understandable, since on average males have larger diameter around the chest; also in the class the males are larger in size than females. Conclusion In general peak flow meter reading will vary according to age, height, gender and also it varies from person to person, as seen from the results, it is difficult to say exactly what a persons best peak flow should be. I conclude from results that males in my group have greater vital capacity than females. I was also aware that in my group, ages do vary from someone who is 30yrs and another who is 18yrs. This is one of the reasons why the histogram graph has large distribution between both genders. I believe, from what I was given, that the results I obtained are fairly accurate and it helps professionals to conclude whether a patient has air inflammation or not. Also helps the doctor to give the right treatments to the

Economic Deflation and How to Prevent It

Economic Deflation and How to Prevent It Is the problem that there is more to printing money than printing money? Is, in fact, the way printed money gets into circulation, that the Fed buys bonds, and thus gets money into the economy? What is the logical rabbit trail that leads to inflation from printing money? Would solving deflation this way work with todays low-interest rates? Why or why not? Deflation has been a hot topic since about 2001 and the fear of deflation does not look like it will subside anytime soon. What Is Deflation? This article on why money has value explains that inflation occurs when money becomes relatively less valuable than goods. Then deflation is simply the opposite, that over time money is becoming relatively more valuable than the other goods in the economy. Following the logic of that article, deflation can occur because of a combination of four factors: The supply of money goes down.The supply of other goods goes up.Demand for money goes up.Demand for other goods goes down. Before we decide that the Fed should increase the money supply, we have to determine how much of a problem deflation really is and how the Fed can influence the money supply. First, well look at the problems caused by deflation. Most economists agree that deflation is both a disease and a symptom of other problems in the economy. In Deflation: The Good, The Bad and the Ugly, Don Luskin at Capitalism Magazine examines James Paulsens differentiation of good deflation and bad deflation. Paulsens definitions are clearly looking at deflation as a symptom of other changes in the economy. He describes good deflation as occurring when businesses are able to constantly produce goods at lower and lower prices due to cost-cutting initiatives and efficiency gains. This is simply factor 2 The supply of other goods goes up on our list of the four factors which cause deflation. Paulsen refers to this as good deflation since it allows GDP growth to remain strong, profit growth to surge and unemployment to fall without inflationary consequence. Bad deflation is a more difficult concept to define. Paulsen simply states that bad deflation has emerged because even though selling price inflation is still trending lower, corporations can no longer keep up with cost reductions and/or efficiency gains. Both Luskin and I have difficulty with that answer, as it seems like half an explanation. Luskin concludes that bad deflation is actually caused by the revaluation of a countrys monetary unit of account by that countrys central bank. In essence, this is really factor 1 The supply of money goes down from our list. So bad deflation is caused by a relative decline in the money supply and good deflation is caused by a relative increase in the supply of goods. These definitions are inherently flawed because deflation is caused by relative changes. If the supply of goods in a year increases by 10% and the supply of money in that year increases by 3% causing deflation, is this good deflation or bad deflation? Since the supply of goods has increased, we have good deflation, but since the central bank hasnt increased the money supply fast enough we should also have bad deflation. Asking whether goods or money caused deflation is like asking When you clap your hands, is the left hand or the right hand responsible for the sound?. Saying that goods grew too fast or money grew too slowly is inherently saying the same thing since were comparing goods to money, so good deflation and bad deflation are terms that probably should be retired. Looking at deflation as a disease tends to get more agreement among economists. Luskin says that the true problem with deflation is that it causes problems in business relationships: If you are a borrower, you are contractually committed to making loan payments that represent more and more purchasing power - while at the same time the asset you bought with the loan to begin with is declining in nominal price. If you are a lender, chances are that your borrower will default on your loan to him under such conditions. Colin Asher, an economist at Nomura Securities, told Radio Free Europe that the problem with deflation is that in deflation [theres] a declining spiral. Businesses make less profits so they cut back [on] employment. People feel less like spending money. Businesses then dont make any profits and everything works itself into a declining spiral. Deflation also has a psychological element as it becomes rooted in peoples psychologies and becomes self-perpetuating. Consumers are discouraged from buying expensive items like automobiles or homes because they know those things will be cheaper in the future. Mark Gongloff at CNN Money agrees with these opinions. Gongloff explains that when prices fall simply because people have no desire to buy - leading to a vicious cycle of consumers postponing spending because they believe prices will fall further - then businesses cant make a profit or pay off their debts, leading them to cut production and workers, leading to lower demand for goods, which leads to even lower prices. While I havent polled every economist who has written an article on deflation this should give you a good idea of what the general consensus on the subject. A psychological factor that has been overlooked is how many workers look at their wages in nominal terms. The problem with deflation is that the forces causing prices in general to drop should cause wages to drop as well. Wages, however, tend to be rather sticky in the downward direction. If prices rise 3% and you give your employees a 3% raise, theyre roughly as well off as they were before. This is equivalent to the situation where prices drop 2% and you cut the pay of your employees by 2%. However, if employees are looking at their wages in nominal terms, theyll be much happier with a 3% raise than a 2% pay cut. A low level of inflation makes it easier to adjust wages in an industry whereas deflation causes rigidities in the labor market. These rigidities lead to an inefficient level of labor usage and slower economic growth. Now weve seen some of the reasons why deflation is undesirable, we must ask ourselves: What can be done about deflation? Of the four factors listed, the easiest one to control is number 1 The supply of money. By increasing the money supply, we can cause the inflation rate to rise, so we can avoid deflation. In order to understand how this works, we first need a definition of the money supply. The money supply is more than just the dollar bills in your wallet and the coins in your pocket. Economist Anna J. Schwartz defines the money supply as follows: The U.S. money supply comprises currency - dollar bills and coins issues by the Federal Reserve System and the Treasury - and various kinds of deposits held by the public at commercial banks and other depository institutions such as savings and loans and credit unions. There are three broad measures economists use when looking at the money supply: M1, a narrow measure of moneys function as a medium of exchange; M2, a broader measure that also reflects moneys function as a store of value; and M3, a still broader measure that covers items that many regard as close substitutes of money. How the Money Rupple Is Influenced The Federal Reserve has several options at its disposal in order to influence the money supply and thereby raise or lower the inflation rate. The most common way the Federal Reserve changes the inflation rate is by changing the interest rate. The Fed influences interest rates causes the supply of money to change. Suppose the Fed wishes to lower the interest rate. It can do this by buying government securities in exchange for money. By buying up securities on the market, the supply of those securities goes down. This causes the price of those securities to go up and the interest rate to decline. The relationship between the price of a security and interest rates is explained on the third page of my article The Dividend Tax Cut and Interest Rates. When the Fed wants to lower interest rates, it buys a security, and by doing so it injects money into the system because it gives the holder of the bond money in exchange for that security. So the Federal Reserve can increase the money supply by lowering interest rates through buying securities and decrease the money supply by raising the interest rates by selling securities. Influencing interest rates is a commonly used method of reducing inflation or avoiding deflation. Gongloff at CNN Money cites a Federal Reserve study that says Japans deflation could have been dodged, for example, if the Bank of Japan (BOJ) had only cut interest rates by 2 more percentage points between 1991 and 1995. Colin Asher points out that sometimes that if interest rates are too low, this method of controlling deflation is no longer an option, as currently in Japan where interest rates are practically zero. Changing interest rates in some circumstances is an effective way of controlling deflation through controlling the money supply. We finally get to the original question: Is the problem that there is more to printing money than printing money? Is, in fact, the way printed money gets into circulation, that the Fed buys bonds, and thus gets money into the economy?. Thats precisely what happens. The money the Fed gets to buy government securities has to come from somewhere. Generally, it is just created in order for the Fed to carry out its open market operations. So in most instances, when economists talk about printing more money and the Fed lowering interest rates theyre talking about the same thing. If interest rates are already zero, as in Japan, there is little room to lower them further, so using this policy to fight deflation will not work well. Fortunately, interest rates in the U.S. have not yet reached the lows of those in Japan. Next week well look at seldom used ways of influencing the money supply that the United States may want to consider in order to fight deflation. If youd like to ask a question about deflation or comment on this story, please use the feedback form.